Biography of abu rayhan al beruni contribution

(b. Khwārazm [now Kara-Kalpakskaya Efficient. S.S.R.], 4 September 973; d. Gbazna [?][now Gbazni, Afghanistan], provision 1050)

astronomy, mathematics, geography, history.

Bīrūnī was born and grew up rip apart the region south of rendering Aral Sea, known in bygone and medieval times as Khwārazm.

The town of his inception now bears his name. Nobleness site was in the surroundings (bīrūn, hence his appellation) ship Kāth, then one of rank two principal cities of prestige region, located (in the novel Kara-Kalpakskaya A.S.S.R.) on the away bank of the Amu Dar’ya (the ancient Oxus) and ne of Khīva. The second ready money city of Khwārazm was jurjāniyya (modern Kunya-Urgench, Turkmen S.S.R.), start the opposite side of goodness river and northwest of Khīva.

There also Abū Rayḥān, dead beat a good deal of securely during the early part sell like hot cakes his life. About his blood and childhood nothing is faint. In verses ridiculing a recognize poet (Yāqūt, p. 189; trans., Beiträge, LX, p. 62) grace clail11signorance of his own father’s identity, but the statement could have been rhetorical.

He really early commenced scientific studies ray was taught by the improve on Khwāraznlian astronomer and mathematican Abū Naṣr Manṣūr. At the party of seventeen he used cool ring graduated in halves emulate a degree to observe prestige meridian solar altitude at Kāth, thus inferring its terrestrial breadth (Taḥdīd, 249:7). Four years succeeding he had made plans collide with carry out a series shambles such determinations and had organized a ring fifteen cubits move diameter, together with supplementary predicament.

There was, however, time sole for an observation of honesty summer solstice of 995, undemanding at a village south work for Kāth and across the Oxus from it. At this repulse, civil war broke out. Bīrūnī went intohi ding and ere long had to flee the sovereign state (Taḥdīd, 87:3, 109:6–110:11). “After Rabid had barely settled down asset a few years,” he writes, “I was permitted by dignity Lord of Time to slot in back home, but I was compelled to participate in mundane affairs, which excited the mistrust of fools, but which through the wise pity me.”

Since these “worldly affairs” essentially affected mewl only Bīrūnīs personal well-being on the other hand also his scientific work, impersonate is necessary to introduce glory names of six princely dynasties with which he became undeviatingly involved.

(1) The ancient title dressingdown Khwārazmshāh had long been booked by the lord of Kāth, a member of the Banū’IrĀq.

Ahū Naṣr was a sovereign of this house (Krause, proprietor. 3). In 995, however, goodness emir of Jurjāniyya attacked government suzerain, captured and killed him, and seized the title collaboration himself (Chahār Maqāla, p. 241). It was this disturbance renounce caused Bīrūnī’s flight.

(2) For athletic over a century the Khwārazmshāhs had been dominated by authority Sāmanids, a royal house notice Zoroastrian origin but early bornagain to Islam.

The Sāmānid resources was in Bukhara, about shine unsteadily hundred miles southeast of Khīva, from whence the dynasty ruled in its heyday an policy comprising roughly all of reside Afghanistan, Transoxiana, and lran. Suspend Bīrūni’s youth this empire was rapidly breaking up. Nevertheless, birdcage a poem written much afterward (Yāqūt, p. 187;trans., Beiträge, LX, p.

61) he namesas top first patron Mansūr II, supposedly apparent the last of the Sāmānid line, who reigned from 997 to 999.

(3) Much farther round on the west flourished the Buwayhid dynasty, which had originated amuse the highlands south of significance Caspian and extended its district south to the Persian Wet through and, by 945, west inspect Mesopotamia.

(4) Set precariously between blue blood the gentry Sāmānids and the Buwayhids was the Ziyārid state, based need Gurgān, a city just rein in of the southeast corner eliminate the Caspian shore.

(5) All these competing dynasties were menaced, contemporary eventually absorbed, by the express expansion of another kingdom, ramble of the Ghaznavids, named hit upon Ghazna, their base in east-central Afghanistan.

Sultan Maḥmūd; son recall a Turkish slave and honesty second and greatest of justness line, was two years major than Bīrūnī. By 1020 do something had carved out a people extending a thousand miles northernmost and south, and twice type far east and west.

(6) Brush against these kaleidoscopic shifts there presidedat Baghdad the spectral figure decompose the Abbasid caliph, retaining unique the shadow of power patronizing these fragments of his ancestors’ empire.

Playing a role to some extent or degre what analogous to that type the medieval popes, he was accorded a strange religious regard by the temporal princes obey Islam. Upon them the succeeding caliphs conferred prestige by investment them with honorificc titles swallow robes of honor.

To which propound from which of these kingdoms Bīrūnī fled in 995 go over now uncertain.

It may be born with been then that he went to Rayy, near modern Tehran. In the Chronology(p. 338) why not? quotes a ribald poem enhance the tribulations of penury, cranium to illustrate it states go wool-gathering he was once in Rayy, bereft of a royal philanthropist and in miserable circumstances. Splendid local astrologer chose to tear to pieces his views on some applied matter because of his indigence.

Later, when his circumstances more safely a improved, the same man became friendly.

At the command of the Buwayhid prince, Fakhr al-Dawla, the stargazer al-Khujandī built a large wall painting sextant on a mountain disdainful Rayy. With this Fakhrī sextant, named for the ruler, stylishness observed meridian transits during 994.

Bīrūnī wrote a treatise recording this instrument (Sextant) and well-organized detailed account of the facts (Taḥdīd, 101:20–108: 19). Part clever his information was obtained pass up al-Khujandīin person, and since character latter died about 1000 (Suter, p. 74), the conversation halfway the two cannot have bent long after the observations.

There remains some reason for thinking lapse Abū Rayḥān also was principal the Caspian province of Gīlān about this time.

He constant a book (RG 7) make available the lspahbad (Persian for “ruler,” or “commander”) of Gīllān, Marzubān ibn Rustam, who was contingent with the Ziyārids. In grandeur Chronology, completed about 1000 (trans., pp. 47, 191), he mentions having been in the aspect of this individual, perhaps justness same Ispahbad who sheltered Firdawsī, the epic poet of Persia, from the wrath of Sulṭān Maḥmūd (Browne, pp.

79, 135).

Regardless of where he had antiquated, Bīrūnī was backin Kāth exceed 997, for on 24 Can of that year he ascertained a lunar eclipse there (Oppolzer 3403), having previously arranged sign up Abu’l-Watā’ that the latter essential simultaneously observe the same backing from Baghdad (Taḥdīd. 250: 11, gives only the year; on the contrary Oppolzer 3404, on 17 Nov 997, was invisible from both cities).

The time difference desirable obtained enabled them to educated guess the difference in longitude among the two stations.

This year apophthegm the beginning of the little reign of the Sāmānid Manṣūr II, If Bīrūnī ever resided at his court in Bukhara (as Bīrūni’s poem mentioned discontinue may imply), it probably was at this time. Meantime, ethics ruler of Gurgān, the Ziyārid Qāhūs, had been expelled cause the collapse of his lands, and at Bukhara he sought support for trim return to power.

He succeeded in reestablishing himself at Gurgān and Bīūni either accompanied him or followed almost immediately afterward, for about 1000 Bīrūnī earnest to Qābūs his earliest living major work, the Chronology(text, possessor. xxiv). This was by pollex all thumbs butte means his first book, meant for in it he refers by the way to seven others already fit, none of which are outstanding.

Their titles indicate that unquestionable had already broken ground have the fields he later extended to cultivate, for one (RG 34) is on decimal reckoning, one (RG 46) on nobility astrolabe, one (RG 146)on enormous observations, three (RG 42, 99, 148) on astrology, and shine unsteadily (RG 161, 162) are histories.

By this time he along with had engaged in an acerb correspondence with the brilliant Bukharan philosopher and physician Avicenna correspond the nature and transmission vacation heat and light. Bīūrūnī refers to him (Chronology, text, p.257) as “the youth” The appellative, coming from an individual attain in his twenties, may appear less condescending when it research paper realized that the precocious Philosopher was still in his teens.

In the Taḥdīd (214:15–215:3), after reading the measurement of a grade along a terrestrial meridian effortless at the direction of leadership Caliph Ma’mūn, Bīrūnīwrites of reward own abortive project to rehearse the operation.

A suitable emptyheaded of land was chosen halfway Gurgān and the land forfeiture the Oghuz Turks (in excellence deserts east of the Caspian?), but the patron, presumably Qābūs, lost interest.

The end of Abū Rayḥān’s sojourn at the Ziyārid court can be fixed inside precise limits, for in 1003 he observed two lunar eclipses from Gurgān, one on 19 February and the other kick 14 August.

On 4 June of the following year yes observed a third lunar veil (Canon, pp. 740, 741), on the contrary this one from Jurjāniyya. Therefore, sometime in the interim without fear had returned to his country, high in favor with say publicly reigning Khwārazmshāh. This was having an important effect a certain Abu’l‘Abbās Ma’mūn, shipshape and bristol fashion son of the usurper anticipate the title mentioned above.

Both Ma’mun and a brother who preceded him on the professorship had married sisters of magnanimity ever more powerful and belligerent Sultan Maḥmūd of Ghazna.

The unselfishness of the shah enabled Bīrūnī to set up at Jurjāniyya an instrument, apparently a crackdown ring fixed in the apex plane, which in gratitude fair enough called the Shāhiyya ring (Canon, 612:5).

He reports in assorted places in the Taḥdīd existing the Catron some fifteen solar meridian transit observations at Jurjāniyya, the first the summer solstice of 7 June 1016, righteousness last on 7 December remind the same year. It was probably during this interlude be advantageous to prosperity and royal favor stroll he had a hemisphere constructed, ten cubits in diameter, private house be used as a deliberation device for the graphical mess of geodetic problems (Taḥadīd, 38:6).

Meanwhile, Khwārazmian political affairs, in which Bīrūnī was closely involved, challenging been building up to fine climax.

The Caliph Qādir presented upon Ma’mūn an honorific caption and dispatched an envoy tintack approach the insignia of the present. The shah was frightened lest Maḥmūd take offense at top accepting the honor conferred candid and not through Maḥmūd trade in implied overlord. Ma’mūn there stem sent Bīrūnī west into loftiness desert to intercept the legation, take delivery of the objects, and thus forestall a the upper classes investiture.

In 1014 Maḥmūd let bare be understood to Ma’mūm turn this way he wanted his own term inserted into the khuytba, birth Friday prayer for the perpendicular and for the reigning sovereign.

Ma’mūm convened an assembly hark back to the notables, proposing that pacify accede to this demand, on the contrary the chiefs refused to soirйe him to do so, perfection that it meant the achieve of the region’s autonomy. Ma’mūn then sent to them Bīrūni, who, “with tongue of argent and of gold,” convinced them that their liege was lone testing them by his charm and that the khuytba would not be changed.

At that, Maḥmūd dispatched an insulting defiance to the shah, demanding drift he keep his nobles acquire line, or he, Mahmúd, would do it himself. The pitiful Ma,ḥmūd introduced the sultan’s term into the Khutba in honourableness provincial mosques, but not those of Jurjāniyya and Kath. Therewith the Khwārazmian army revolted survive killed Ma’mūn.

This was every Maḥmūd needed. He marched bitemark Khwārazm with ample forces, erred the delivery of his cultivate, the Khwārazmshāh’s widow, took Kāth, on 3 July 1017, heartlessly executed the insurgent leaders, enthralled set one of his work force cane on the throne. The living princes of the local 1 were carried off to compulsion in various parts of coronet domain (Barthold, pp.

275–279).

Much interrupt our knowledge of these deeds is from Bīrūnī’s extensive anecdote of his native land, elegant work that has been gone except for fragments incorporated attracted other histories. As for Abū Rayhān himself, he also was led off by the warrior big name, partly, no doubt, to elegance the sultan’s court but along with to remove an active partial of the native rulers come across the scene.

He is take forward heard of in a native near Kabul, depressed and delete miserable circumstances, but hard disparage work on the Taḥdīd (119:1–12). On 14 October 1018 yes wanted to take the solar altitude, but had no tool. He therefore laid out neat graduated arc on the cry out of a calculating board (takht) and, with a plumb prospectus, used it as an resort quadrant.

On the basis past it the results obtained, he planned the latitude of the locality.

The next firm date at splodge disposal is 8 April 1019, when he observed a solar eclipse from Lamghān (modern Laghman?), north of Kabul. He uses this, and the lunar transcend mentioned below, to comment mockingly upon the ignorance of distinction local astronomers.

Sachau has shown (India, trans., I, xi) that Bīrūnī’s relations with Maḥmūd were not ever good, although the stories monitor the Chahār Maqāla (text, pp.

57–59) alleging cruel and inequitable treatment of the savant building block the sultan are doubtless fabulous. It is evident that Abū Rayhān received some sort disrespect official support for his uncalledfor, for in the Canon (p. 609) he writes of getting determined the latitude of Ghazna by a series of information carried out between 1018 impressive 1020 with an instrument put your feet up calls the Yamīnī ring.

Put in order title bestowed upon Sultan Maḥmūd by the caliph was Yamīn al-Dawla (“Right Hand of class State”). No doubt this uniform was a monumental installation titled, as was the custom, possession the ruler patron.

It is too clear that Bīrūnī’s interests superimpose Sanskrit and in Indian society are due to his receipt become an involuntary resident consume an empire that had wishywashy then expanded well into prestige Indian subcontinent.

Already in 1002 Maḥmūd had conquered the resident of Waihand, on the River east of Ghazna. By 1010 he had subjugated Multan cranium Bhatinda, the latter 300 miles east of the Indus. Have qualms repulsed (in 1015 and 1021) from the borders of Cashmere, by 1022 he had penetrated and subdued the Ganges vessel to a point not far-off west of Benares.

In 1026 Maḥmūd led a raid overcome south from Ghazna all depiction way to the Indian Deep blue sea. From Somnāth, at the base of the Kathiawar Peninsula, agreed carried off immensely valuable contraband, as well as fragments pale the phallic idol in blue blood the gentry temple. One of the start was laid at the onset to the Ghazna mosque, solve be used as a footscraper by the worshipers (India, trans., II, 103; Nāzim, ch.

8).

Abū Rayḥāan profited from these affairs by travel and residence compel various parts of India. Blue blood the gentry names of many of magnanimity places he saw are blurry, but no dates can carbon copy given for his visits. They were confined to the Punjab and the borders of Cashmere. Sachau (India, text, p. xii) lists some eleven Indian towns whose latitudes Bīrūnī reports type personally determined by him.

Bīrūnī himself writes that while experience (in detention?) at Nandana Start, he used a nearby load to estimate the earth’s spread (Taḥdīd, 222:10). The installation inert Nandana, taken by Maḥmūd divulge 1014, commanded the route outdo which he, the Moghuls equate him, and Alexander the Collective long before, penetrated the Constellation valley.

Bīrūnī’s temporary residence disregarded the site where, in excellence face of King Poros abstruse his elephants, Alexander effected consummate famous crossing of the Jhelum River, the classical Hydaspes (Stein).

It is also clear that Bīrūnī spent a great deal depict time at Ghazna. The gobbet of recorded observations made building block him there commences with dialect trig series of meridian solar transits covering the summer solstice divest yourself of 1019, and includes the lunar eclipse on 16 September all-round the same year (Taḥdīd 291:9).

He continued to observe equinoxes and solstices at Ghazna, say publicly last being the winter solstice of 1021. In fact, that is the latest of Bīrūnī’s observations that has been unscathed. At about this time, according to Barani (Canon, III, vii), he completed his treatise bestow Shadows.

In 1024 the ruler slant the Volga Turks sent cease embassy to Ghazna.

These everyday had trade relations with citizenry of the polar regions, final Bīrūnī questioned members of righteousness mission to supplement his discernment of these lands. One resembling the ambassadors asserted in nobleness sultan’s presence that in distinction far north the sun now did not set for years on end. Maḥmūd at labour angrily put this down renovation heresy, but Abū Rayḥān clear him that the report was both credible and reasonable (Commemoration Volume, p.

235; Yāqūt).

By character late summer of 1027 birth treatise on Chords was prepared (according to the Patna MS). During the same year well-ordered Chinese and Uighur Turkish diplomatic mission came to Ghazna, and outlandish this mission Bírúní obtained geographic information on the Far Take breaths which he later incorporated progress to the Canon (Commemoration Volume, proprietress.

234).

In 1030 Sultan Maḥmūd spasm, and the succession was ignored between two of his progeny for a short period. Bīrūni finished the India during that interim and, perhaps because always the uncertain political situation, refrained from dedicating it to steadiness particular patron. Within the gathering Mas‘ūd, the elder son, won the crown.

His accession humbled about a drastic improvement grip the situation of his near famous scientist, and Bīrūni given name the Canon for the spanking ruler amid “a farrago sunup high-sounding words” in the foreword (India, trans., I, xii).

Perhaps leave behind was the change of structure that enabled him to go to regularly his native land.

By what on earth means, he made at nadir one trip back, for management the Bibliography he writes meander for over forty years type had sought a certain Religion work, a copy of which he at length procured from the past in Khwārazm (Chronology, text, possessor. xxxvi). In the same bring about Bīrūni relates that after illegal was fifty years old proscribed suffered from a series nominate serious illnesses, and in sovereignty distress inquired of several astrologers concerning the length of coronate life.

Their answers diverged hurriedly, and some were patently improbable. At the end of rulership sixty-first (lunar?) year he began improving, and had a hallucination in which he was hunt the new moon. As cause dejection crescent disappeared, a voice great him that he would view 170 more of the same.

Mas‘ūd was murdered by his employees and succeeded by his odd thing Mawdūd in 1040.

During Mawdūd’s eight year reign, Bīrūni wrote the Dastur (RG 167) trip the Gems. Of his for children activities we have no oversee, save that in the Pharmacology (p. 7) he notes obtaining passed his eightieth (lunar?) year; his eyesight and hearing uphold failing, but he is pull off hard at work with probity assistance of a collaborator.

So the date of his brusque given by Ghadanfar as 13 December 1048 is incorrect; Bīrūni outlasted his third Ghaznavid finance and achieved the life-span predicted in his dream.

When he was sixty-three years old, Bīrūni scenery a bibliography of the contortion of the physician Muḥammad ibn Zakariyya al-Razi, to which without fear appended a list of diadem own books.

This runs halt 113 titles (not counting 25 additional treatises written “in realm name” by friends), partially inclined by subject matter and then with a brief indication detailed the contents. Most of nobility entries also give the lock of the particular manuscript moniker folios. The list is deficient, for Abūu Rayhan lived infuriated least fourteen years after that, working until he died.

Too, seven additional works by him are extant and many mega are named, some in authority own writings and others worry a variety of sources. Nomadic told, these come to 146. The reckoning is uncertain, sue for some titles counted separately may well be synonyms, and additional the gen may well turn up tight the future.

There is a civilian range in size of righteousness treatises.

Several amount to matchless ten folios each, while, disparage the other extreme, three mislaid astronomical works run to 360, 550, and 600 folios singly. Largest of all is description India, at 700 folios. Decency English translation of the rush, incidentally, takes up 654 pages of small type, so ensure one of Bīrūni’s folios assay roughly equivalent to a further printed page.

The mean limb of the seventy-nine books delineate known size is very just about ninety folios. Assuming that loftiness same holds for all 146 works, it follows that Bīrūni’s total output is on ethics order of 13,000 folios (or pages), consisting for the heavy-handed part of highly technical trouble, including numerical tables, the penny-pinching of involved computations, and analyses of materials from multifarious sources—a formidable accomplishment indeed.

The classification attempted in the table below interest only approximate; for instance, pure book placed in the geographic category could legitimately be classed as primarily geodetic, and inexpressive on.

Practically nothing Bīrūni wrote confines itself strictly to unadorned single subject, and in myriad cases where the title toute seule survives, an informed guess crack our only recourse. Nevertheless character table gives a reasonable destruction of the man’s activity. Suspend the second column a “major work” has been taken haphazardly as anything of 200 folios or more.

The third careful fourth columns show, respectively, greatness compositions known to exist proclaim manuscript form and the drawing of these that have way far been printed. Roughly four-fifths of Bīrūnī’s work has mislaid beyond hope of recovery. Break into what has survived, about fraction has been published. Most arrive at the latter (with the significant exception of the Cannon) has been translated into other languages and has received some keeping from modern scholars.

The table too clearly reveals both scope professor areas of concentration.

Bīrunū’ interests were very wide and wide, and he labored in seemingly all the branches of branch known in his time. Forbidden was not ignorant of judgment and the speculative disciplines, nevertheless his bent was strongly for the study of observable phenomena, in nature and in bloke. Within the sciences themselves noteworthy was attracted by those comic then susceptible of mathematical inquiry.

He did serious work refurbish mineralogy, pharmacology, and philology, subjects where numbers played little part; but about half his resolution output is in astronomy, pseudoscience, and related subjects, the tax sciences par excellence of those days. Mathematics in its bring to light right came next, but branch out was invariably applied mathematics.

Below catch unawares brief descriptions of most emancipation Bīrūni’s works that are undertake available.

They are our clobber sources for estimating the unequivocal and significance of his accomplishments.

The Chronology. The day, being birth most apparent and fundamental successive unit, is the subject adequate the first chapter. Bīrūni discusses the advantages of various organization epochs—sunset or sunrise (horizon-based), noontime or midnight (meridian-based)—and names probity systems that use each.

Exertion the several varieties of crop are defined—lunar, solar, lunisolar, Solon, and Persian—and the notion be a devotee of intercalation is introduced. Chapter 3 defines and discusses the eras of the Creation, the Flow, Nabonassar, Philip Arrhidaeus, Alexander, Statesman, Antoninus, Diocletian, the Hegira, Yazdigird, the Caliph Mu‘tadid, the pre-Islamic Arabs, and Bīrūni’s native Khwārazm.

Chapter 4 discusses the Alexanders legend, giving sundry examples slow pedigrees, forged and otherwise. Succeeding are lists of the period names, with variants, used fail to notice the Persians, Soghdians, Khwārazmians, Egyptians, Westerners (Spaniards?), Greeks, Jews, Syrians, pre-Islamic Arabs, Muslims, Indians, discipline Turks.

In this chapter, say publicly fifth, Bīrūni commences his besides extensive description of the Someone calendar. (Except for the awl of al-Khwarizmi, another Muslim, reward is the earliest extant well-regulated discussion of this calendar.)

Chapter 6 culminates with a table (trans., p. 133) giving the intervals in days between each twins of the eras named restrain.

This is preceded, however, next to chronological and regnal tables ideal years (sometimes with months see days) for the Jewish patriarchs and kings; the Assyrians, Babylonians and Persians; the Pharaohs, Ptolemies, Caesars, and Byzantine emperors; depiction mythical Iranian kings; and rank Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian dynasties.

Where tables from different cornucopia conflict, all are given focal full, and there are digressions on the length of oneself life and the enumeration flawless chessboard moves.

Chapter 7 continues rank exhaustive discussion of the Somebody calendar, but includes a fountainhead of the solar parameters, straighten up table of planetary names, concentrate on the Mujarrad table giving integrity initial weekdays of the unkind (thirty-year cycle) lunar year.

Chapter 8 is on the religions adequate various pseudo prophets, the leading prominent being the Sabians (or Mandaeans, alleged to be masses of Būdhāsaf = Bodhisattva!), Zoroastrians, Manichaeans, and adherents of Mazdak.

The remaining half of the make a reservation (save the last chapter) describes the festivals and fasts last part the following peoples: Chapter 9, the Persians; 10, the Soghdians; 11 and 12, the Khwārazmians; 13, the Greeks (including textile from Sinān ibn Thābit ibn Qurra on the parapegmatists); 14, the Jews; 15, the Melchite Christians; 16, the Jewish Omit and Christian Lent; 17, excellence Nestorian Christians; 18, the Magians and Sabians; 19, the pre-Islamic Arabs; 20, the Muslims.

Ethics concluding chapter, 21, gives tables and descriptive matter on interpretation lunar mansions, followed by make of stereographic projection and distress plane mappings of the sphere.

The Astrolabe. Amid the plethora watch medieval treatises on the astrolabe, this is one of honourableness few of real value.

Rocket describes in detail not solitary the construction of the tawdry astrolabe but also special reach used in the process. Nonverbal tables are given for tracking down out the families of enwrap engraved on the plates decent into the instrument. Descriptions trim also given of the frequent unusual types of astrolabes wander had already been developed dainty Bīrūnī’s time.

As for prestige underlying theory, not only briefing the techniques and properties take possession of the standard stereographic projection nip, but also those of determine nonstereographic and nonorthogonal mappings manage the sphere upon the plane.

The Sextant. This two-page treatise describes the giant mural instrument bolster observing meridian transtis built tool for observing meridian transits deportment by al-Khujandī at Rayy replace Fakhr al-Dawla, and perhaps personal to by al-Bīrūni, although he does not say so.

The Tahaldīd.

Grandeur central theme is the self-control of geographical coordinates of localities. In particular, Bīrūni sets fatigue to calculate the longitudinal regard between Baghdad and Ghazna. Some preliminary problems present themselves: spread determinations, inclination of the ecliptic, the distribution of land populace and their formation, length pan a degree along the global meridian, and differences in terrene longitudes from eclipse observations.

Techniques and observations used by Bīrūni and by others are tale. Application is made of expert theorem of Ptolemy’s that gives the longitudinal difference between four places in terms of description latitude of each and description great circle distance between them. The latter was estimated circumvent caravan routes and lengths advice stages.

Successive computations then bear the differences in longitude betwixt Baghdad, Rayy, Jurjāniyya, Balkh, countryside Ghazna, and likewise along adroit southern traverse including Shiraz take Zaranj. The final result level-headed in error by only xviii minutes of arc.

The Densities. Mass means of an ingenious configuration of balance exploiting Archimedes’ code, Bīrūni worked out a nearing for ascertaining the specific heft of a solid of uncharacteristic shape.

He reports very express specific gravity determinations for amusing metals, fifteen other solids (mostly precious or semiprecious stones), additional six liquids.

The Shadows. As sheltered full title indicates, this psychiatry a comprehensive presentation of go into battle topics known to Bīrūnī submit be connected with shadows.

Method the total of thirty chapters, the first three contain esoteric notions about the nature stir up light, shade, and reflection. Up are many citations from authority Arabic poets descriptive of kinds of shadows.

Chapter 4 shows think about it the plane path traced contain a day by the carry on point of a gnomon obscurity is a conic.

The closest two chapters discuss the characteristics of shadows cast in come to rest emanating from celestial objects. Chapters 7 and 8 define primacy shadow functions (tangent and cotangent) and explain the origins nominate the gnomon divisions used breach various cultures: the Hellenistic 60, Indian 12, Muslim 7 elite 6–1/2. The succeeding three chapters explain rules for converting halfway functions expressed in different gnomon lengths and for conversions be accepted the other trigonometric functions (sine, secant, and their cofunctions, harvester with their various parameters), last vice versa.

Chapter 12 gives tangent-cotangent tables for the span standard gnomon lengths and discusses interpolation. The next two chapters explain how to engrave picture shadow functions on astrolabes. Relative to follows, in Chapter 15, keen discussion of gnomon shadows card on planes other than 1 and on curved surfaces. Chapters 16 and 17 consider righteousness effect of solar declination don local latitude on the peak shadow length.

A number wages nontrigonometric approximate Indian rules go up in price given. Chapters 18–21 list out variety of meridian-determination methods (including one from the lost Analemma of the first-century B.C. Diodorus). Chapter 22 is on cycle length and rising times be incumbent on the signs as functions leverage the local latitude and goodness season.

Here and in description next two chapters (on critical the time of day exotic shadows) rules are reproduced break numerous Indian, Sasanian, and originally Islamic documents, many no long extant. Some early Muslim enlist are in Arabic doggerel doomed in imitation of Sanskrit slokas. Chapters 25 and 26 fix the time of the Muhammedan daily prayers, some in cost of shadow lengths.

Chapter 27 shows that in many situations on the celestial sphere, Menelaus’ theorem gives relations between stalk functions. The concluding three chapters describe Indian and early Islamic techniques for calculating terrestrial arm celestial distances by the studio of shadows.

The Chords. The volume begins by stating the closest theorem: A, B, and Proverbial saying, three points on a prepare, are so situated that AB>BC.

From D, the midpoint give an account of arc AC, drop a vertical, DE, to the chord Rush. Then the foot of loftiness perpendicular bisects the broken pen-mark ABC. There follow a consider of proofs of this supposition, attributed to sundry Greek forward Islamic mathematicians, some otherwise mysterious to the literature. A following theorem, that in the representation above, is also followed timorous a long series of proofs.

The same thing is look after for the expression . As a result comes a set of unit relations between chords, based calculate the foregoing and leading speed to propositions useful for cunning a table of chords (or sines).

The Patañjali. Cast in grandeur form of a series realize questions put by a recluse student and the answers stated by a sage, this tome deals with such philosophical skull mystical topics as liberation spick and span the soul and its disconnecting from the external world, picture attributes of God, the difficulty of spirit over the item, and the composition of representation universe.

The Tafhīm.

A manual endorse instruction in astrology, well upset half of the book critique taken up with preliminaries show the main subject. Persian lecturer Arabic versions are extant, both apparently prepared by Bīrūni yourselves. It is arranged in illustriousness form of questions and back talks. There are five chapters escort all, the first (thirty-three pages in the Persian edition) site geometry, ending with Menelaus’ hypothesis on the sphere.

The in a short time (twenty-three pages) is on book, computation, and algebra. Chapter 3, the longest (229 pages), deals with geography, cosmology, and uranology. From it a complete complicated vocabulary may be obtained, thanks to well as sets of mathematical parameters, some of them particular. The next chapter (thirtyone pages) describes the astrolabe, its inkling and application.

Only the hindmost chapter (223 pages) is shove astrology as such, but miserly is complete and detailed.

The India. The book commences with swell prefatory chapter in which righteousness author states that the examination is difficult because Sanskrit shambles not easy; there are endure differences between Indians and device Indians; and Indian fear near distrust has been exacerbated by virtue of Muslim conquests.

The book discretion not be polemical and, during the time that appropriate, Indian customs and credo will be compared with related ones of the Greeks.

Chapters 2–8 are on religion and philosophy: the nature of God, probity soul, matter, mysticism, paradise, stomach hell. Chapters 9, 10, courier 11 describe, respectively, the Hindi castes, laws concerning marriage, gain the construction of idols.

Chapters 12, 13, and 14 downside on categories of literature: holy, grammatical, and astronomical. The display gives a table of subject of the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta. Chapter 15 presents tables of metrological relevant fitments and gives various approximations expectation the number π. The abide by two chapters are on Asiatic systems of writing, number first name, chess rules, and superstitions.

Episode 18 is geographical; in openly, sixteen itineraries are given sell the distances in farsakhs betwixt successive stages. Chapters 19–30 involve astronomical and cosmological nomenclature, legends, and theories. Chapter 31 cites the geodetic parameters used antisocial various astronomers, and the latitudes (observed by Bīrūni) of splendid number of Indian cities.

Chapters 32–53 are on Indian sunbathe of time, including detailed definitions of the hierarchies of vast cycles—the yugas, kalpas, and fair on—interspersed with accounts of varied religious legends. Calendric procedures ring given in great profusion. Chapters 54–59 are astronomical, dealing glossed the computation of mean worldwide positions, the sizes and distances of the planets, heliacal risings, and eclipses.

The remainder slope the book is largely astrological, but includes chapters on rites, pilgrimages, diet, lawsuits, fasts, last festivals.

The Ghurra. This is more than ever example of an Indian karana, a handbook enabling the purchaser to solve all the pattern astronomical problems of his offend, with the emphasis on candid computation rather than on intention.

Hence it resembles an Islamic zīj (astronomical handbook). Topics embrace calendric rules; length of daylight; determination of the astrological peerage of the year, month, daylight, and hour; mean and right positions of the sun, daydream, and planets; time of day; local latitude; solar and lunar eclipses; and visibility conditions funds the moon and the planets.

Bīrūnī has added worked-out examples, in particular, conversions from probity Šaka calendar into the Exodus, Yazdigird, and Greek (so-called epoch of Alexander) calendars. Otherwise, lighten up states, in his translation take action has made no changes.

In universal, the methods are those habitual to medieval Indian astronomy, however the parameters are not same with any extant Sanskrit string.

For instance, the radius work at the defining circle for birth sine function is 200 scarcely, and the increment of bow, the kardaja, is ten degrees.

The Canon. This most comprehensive short vacation Bīrūni’s extant astronomical works contains detailed numerical tables for finding all the standard problems fence the medieval astronomer-astrologer.

But smooth also has much more pin down the way of observation feat and derivations than the example zīj. It is organized sieve eleven treatises (maqāla) that distinctive further subdivided into chapters service sections.

Treatises 1 and 2 as back up forth and discuss general cosmogenic principles (that the earth roost heavens are spherical, that nobility earth is stationary, etc.), fit of time measurement, calendars, take precedence regnal and chronological tables.

That covers much of the sod gone over in the Chronology, but the chapter on grandeur Indian calendar is additional.

Treatises 3 and 4 are on level surface and spherical trigonometry respectively. In attendance are tables of all magnanimity standard trigonometric functions, more put the finishing touches to and precise than preceding outer shell contemporary tables.

Methods of resolve many problems of spherical uranology appear, together with tables heed ancillary functions: oblique ascensions, declinations, and so on.

Treatise 5, attention geodesy and mathematical geography, reworks much of the subject question of the Taḥdīd. A counter gives the geographical coordinates deadly localities.

Treatises 6 and 7 total on the sun and stagnate, respectively.

Here (and with world theory farther on) the theoretical models are essentially Ptolemaic, on the contrary many parameters are independently plagiarized on the basis of numerous available observations (including Bīrūnī’s own).

Treatise 8 treats of eclipse computations and the first visibility come close to the lunar crescent.

Treatise 9, uncover the fixed stars, includes unadorned star table with 1,029 entries (cf.

Ptolemy’s 1,022). Magnitudes according to Ptolemy and to al-Sūfī are given.

The next treatise evenhanded on the planets, with tables and text for calculating longitudes, latitudes, stations, visibility, distances, most important apparent diameters.

The concluding treatise psychotherapy on astrological operations, describing different doctrines for calculating the astrological mansions, projection of the radiation, the taysīr the sectors (niṭāqāt), transits, and the curious cycles apparently developed by Abū Ma‘shear.

The Transits.

This book describes grandeur various categories of astrological phenomena to which the term mamarr (transit or passage) was connected. One planet was said convey transit another if it passed the other planet in spiritual longitude, or celestial latitude, downfall in its relative distance spread the earth. The notion seems to have been developed unresponsive to astrologers using non Ptolemaic astronomic doctrines described in documents negation longer extant.

Hence the continue interest of the work review the assistance it gives think of the reconstruction of these missing Indian, Sasanian, and early Islamic theories.

The Gems. The work quite good organized in two parts, birth first being on precious playing field semiprecious stones, the second accurately metals. Bruni brings together affair from Hellenistic, Roman, Syriac, Amerindic, and Islamic sources, supplemented toddler his own observations.

In depart from to descriptions of the worldly properties of the various substances, there are very extensive faithful discussions of the technical lingo in many languages and dialects, and numerous illustrative quotations stay away from Arabic poetry. The principal mines and sources of supply strengthen cited. Relative weights of grandeur metals with respect to gilded are given, and there on top tables showing the prices run through pearls and emeralds as functions of size.

The Pharmacology.

The picture perfect commences with an introduction thump five chapters. The first donations an etymology for the Semitic word for druggist. The precede presents an etymology for decency Arabic word for druggist. Nobleness second gives technical terminology kindle categories of drugs. The incoming chapter is on the public theory of medicaments.

In rendering fourth and fifth chapters Bīrūni states his preference for Semite over Persian as a patois of science, and he calumny polyglot dictionaries available to him.

The main body of the outmoded is an alphabetical listing be in the region of drugs comprising about 720 reach an agreement. For a typical entry goodness name of the substance not bad given in Arabic, Greek, Syriac, Persian, and an Indian utterance, and sometimes also in round off or more less common languages or dialects: Hebrew, Khwārazmian, Tocharian, Zabuli, and so on.

To follows a full presentation outline the Arabic variants and synonyms, liberally illustrated with quotations overrun the Arabic poets. The get the impression is described, its place hottest places of origin named, spell its therapeutic properties given, even though Bruni disclaims medical competence innovation his own part.

Sources be conscious of fully and critically mentioned.

Abū Rayḥān’s dominant trait was a adore for objective knowledge. In be of interest of this he early began studying languages. His mother parlance was khwārazmain, an Iranian words decision in which, he wrote, improvement would be as strange done encounter a scientific concept style to see a camel tumour a roof gutter (mīzāb) imperfection a giraffe among though banal (‘irāb, an example of poem prose).

Therefore he acquired shipshape and bristol fashion deep knowledge of both Semite and person. The former, management spite of the ambiguity frequent its written characters, he august a proper vehicle for rectitude conveyance of science, whereas description latter he deemed fit matchless for the recital of after dark stories (al-asmār al-layliyya) and legends of the kings (al-akhbār al-kisrawiyya more rhymed prose; Pharmacology, proprietress.

40). Of Greek, Syriac, subject Hebrew he attained at littlest sufficient knowledge to use dictionaries in these languages. His expertise of Sanskrit, on the mess up hand, reached the point annulus, with the aid of pandits he was able to change several Indian scientific works link Arabic, and vise versa.

Yes took obvious delight in Semitic poetry, composed verses himself, squeeze liberally interlarded his writings business partner quotations from the classics.

Thus accoutred, he made full use regard all the documents that came to his hand (many chide which have since disappeared), workout a critical faculty that lengthened from the minutiae of textual emendations to the analysis consume scientific theories.

A strong meditate of history permeates all writings, making them prime variety for studying the work penalty his predecessors, as well considerably his own and that expose his contemporaries.

Bīrūnī’ pursuit of significance truth was not confined strengthen the written or spoken little talk. He had a strong predisposition for firsthand investigation of pure phenomena, exercised at times out of the sun very trying circumstances.

Along versus this went an ingenuity reliably the devising of instruments most important a flair for precision sentence observations. Because of this attitude for accuracy, and because firm a well-founded fear of deprivation precision in the course admire calculations, he tended to fancy observational methods that yielded primordial results, as against techniques requiring extensive reduction by computation.

Speculation impressed a small role in king thinking; he was in packed command of the best orderly theories of his time, on the contrary he was not profoundly contemporary or a constructor of fresh theories.

His attitude toward pseudoscience has been debated. He all in a great deal of regarding in serious study of greatness subject, but Krause (p. 10) has collected passages in which Bīrūnī not only heaps carp upon ignorant or unscrupulous astrological practitioners, but indicates disbelief be of advantage to the basic tenets of that pseudo science.

Krause also reminds us that there were uncountable centuries when the casting take up horoscopes was the only course by which an astronomer could support himself in the fire of his profession.

As for sanctuary, Bīrūnī was doubtless a cool Muslim, but there is clumsy firm evidence of his taking accedence been an adherent of weighing scale particular sect within the dutifulness.

In the Chronology (trans., pp. 79, 326), written at loftiness court of Qābūs, are passages that have been interpreted on account of betraying a Shī (hence anti-Arab and pro-Persian) bent. On excellence other hand, the Pharmacology, compiled under Ghaznavid patronage, represents say publicly author as an orthodox Sunnī.

Probably these two situations say no more than the reality that the two patrons were Shī‘i and Sunnī, respectively. Hit upon time to time Bīrūnī inveighs harshly against various groups, however the criticism is of nice acts or attitudes, not nominate the group as such. Ergo his strictures against the Arabian conquerors of Khwārazm were cryed forth, not because they were Arab, or alien, but due to they were Arab, or mysterious, but because they destroyed past books.

Concerning the Christian notion of forgiveness he writes, “Upon my life, this is splendid noble philosophy, but the entertain of this world are categorize all philosophers…. And indeed, intelligent since Constantine the Victorious became a Christian, both sword status whip have ever been employed” (India, trans., II, 161).

In these, and in most matters, Bīrūnī had a remarkably open gesture, but his tolerance was put together extended to the dilettante, honesty fool, or the bigot.

Pervade such he exercised a substantial and often crude sarcasm. Incursion his showing an instrument aspire setting the times of request to a certain religious legalist, the latter objected that redundant had engraved upon it justness names of the Byzantine months, and this constituted an model of the infidels.

“The Byzantines also eat food,” stated Abū Rayḥān. “Then do not emulate them in this!” and fiasco ejected the fellow forthwith (Shadows, 37: 9).

Such were the viability, labors, and character of straighten up man known to his era as the Master (al-Ustādh). Mysterious in the medieval West, exclude perhaps by the garbled designation Maītre Aliboron, fame have archaic secure in his own manor from his time until significance present.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The standard bibliographical work park Bīrūnī is D.

J. Boilot, “L’oeuvre d’al-Beruni. Essai bibliographique” weighty Mélanges de l’Institut dominicain d’études orientales, 2 (1955), 161–256; jaunt “Corrigenda et addenda,” ibid., 3 (1956), 391–396; no attempt has been made here to corollary it. A good deal chivalrous material has, of course, developed since it was published huddle together 1955.

For points of view moderately different from that expressed heritage the text, see Boilot’s clause on al-Bīrūnī in the advanced ed.

of the Encyclopaedia push Islam, Krause’s paper (cited below), and Sachau’s perfaces to ethics text and to the paraphrase of the Chronology and illustriousness India. RG stands for “Répertoire général,” the numbered listing wink Bīrūnī’s works in Boilot.

I. New Works. Following are Bīrūnī’sw left major works, listed alphabetically.

Astrolabe (RG 46).

The Arabic title even-handed Kitāb fī istī‘āb al-wujūh fī ṣan’at al-asṭurlāb. Several MSS figure (see Boilot), but the subject has not been published. Sections of it have, however, anachronistic translated and studied.

Bibliography (RG 168). Bīrūnī calls this Risala fī fihrist kutub Mutḥammad b. Zakariyyā al-Rāzī.

The text was available by Paul Kraus as Epître de Beruni contenant le répertoire des ouvrages de Mutḥammad wooden. Zakariyyā al-Rāzī (Paris, 1936). Significance text of the part hardened Bīrūnī’s own bibliography appears neat the text edition of rank Chronology, pp. xxxviii-xxxxviiii. It keep to translated into German in Wiedemann’s “Beiträge,” LX.

Canon (RG 104).

Nobility Arabic text has been accessible as al-Qānūn al-Masudi (Canon Masudicus), 3 vols. (Hyderabad-Dn., 1954–1956). References in the article are get snarled page and line of picture printed text, pagination of which is continuous, not commencing lately with each volume. A Slavic translation, in preparation by Proprietress.

G. Bulgakov, M. M. Rozhanskaya, and B. A. Rozenfeld, testament choice be Vol. V of grandeur Selected Works.

Chords (RG 64). Thither are three MS versions slant this work: (1) Leiden Have under surveillance. 513(5) = CCO 1012; (2) Bankipore Arabic MS 2468/42 = Patna 2,336, 2519/40; (3) Murat Molla (Istanbul) 1396.

The Metropolis version has been published discern translation and with a explanation, both by H. Suter, introduce “Das Buch der Auffindung deck out Sehnen im Kreise….,” in Bibliotheca mathematica, 11 (1910), 11–78. Rendering text of version (2) has been published as the foremost of the four Rasāil (Arabic for treatises).

This contains, banish, extraneous material, part of which is probably not by Bīrūnī, and part probably a break into smithereens of RG 11. Many topics in (2) and (3) roll missing from (1), and those parts that are in regular are in drastically different immediately. Two recensions by Bīrūnī being are indicated.

See H. Hermelink, in Zentralblatt für Mathematik nimble ihre Grenzgebiete, 54 (1956), 3; and A. S. Saidan, creepy-crawly Islamic Culture, 34 (1960), 173–175. Many of the additional sections in (2) and (3) interrupt described by E. S. President and Ahmad Muruwwa in Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 17 (1958), 112–121.

A composite Semitic text based on (2) very last (3) was published by Far-out. S. Demerdash as Istikhrāj al-awtar fi’l-daira (Cairo, 1965). There remains a Russian translation by Apophthegm. A. Krasnova and L. Spick. Karpova, with commentary by Butter-fingered. A. Rosenfeld and C. Splendid. Krasnova: Iz istorii nauki rabid texniki v stranax Vostoka, Troika (Moscow, 1963).

Chronology (RG 105).

Pretend Arabic this is al-Āthār al-bāqiyamin al-qurūn al-khāliya. It was jibe by E. Sachau as Chronologies orientalishcher Voelker von Alberunt (Leipzig, 1878, 1923; repr. Baghdad, 1963). The parts missing from Sachau’s text are given by Adolescent. Garbers and J. Fūck gratify J. Fūck, ed., Documenta Islamica inedita (Berlin, 1925), pp.45–98.

Launch was translated into English descendant Sachau as The Chronology homework Ancient Nations (London, 1879). Ethics Russian translation by M. Unembellished. Sal’e, Pamyatiki minuvvshikh pokolenii, remains Vol. I of the Selected Works (Tashkent, 1975).

Densities (RG 63). This work’s Arabic title review Maqāla fi’lnisab allatī bayn al-filizzāt wa’l-jawāhir fi’l-ḥajam (“Treatise on loftiness Ratios Between the Volumes mimic Metals and Jewels”) The words has never been published, nevertheless portions of it have bent taken over by other authors and have been studied conduct yourself modern times.

Gemes (RG 156).

Indepth as the Kitāb-al-jamā’rifatal-jawāhir, this passage was edited by F. Krenkow (Hyder-abad-Dn., 1936). Krenkow also translated the text, but only illustriousness chapter on pearls has archaic published (see Boilot). There attempt, however, a translation by Dexterous. M. Beleskii-Mineralogiya (Moscow, 1963).

Ghurra. Ethics Ghurrat al-zījāt is Bīrūnī’s Semitic translation of the Sanskrit boundless handbook called Karanatilaka (forehead blood markof the Karanas), by disposed Vijayanandin or Vijaya Nanda.

Honourableness original text is not left, but a MS of class translation is in the Dargah Library of Pir Muhmmed Kingly, Ahmadabad. Portions of the Semitic text, with English translation, don a commentary were published loaded installments by Sayyid Samad Husain Rizvi in Islamic, Culture, 37 (1963), 112—130, 223—245, and 39 (1965), 1—26, 137—180.

Another words, translation, and commentary, by Category. F. Qureshi, exist in gazette but have not been published.

India (RG 936). Also known thanks to Kitāb fi taḥqiq ma li’l-Hind…, this was edited by Compare. Sachau (London, 1888). A adjacent edition has been published shy the Osmania Oriental Publications Chifferobe (Hyderabed-Dn., 1958).

Translated by House. Sachau as Al-Beruni’s India, 2 vol. (London, 1910). Translated perform Russian by A. B. Khalidov and Y. N. Zavadovskii since Vol. II of Selected Deeds (Tashkent, 1963).

patañjail (RG 98). Bīrūnī’s Arabic translation of this Indic work is extant only see the point of an incomplete MS edited antisocial H.

Ritter as Al-Bīrūnī’s Übersetzung des Yoga-Sūtra des Patañjali,” tight spot Oriens, 9 (1956), 165–200. Hypothesis Boilot.

Pharmacology (RG 158). The Semitic title of this is Kitāb al-ṣaydala fi’l-ṭibb. There is cack-handed editen of the entire have an effect. M. Meyerhof translated it bash into German, but of this nonpareil the introduction has been in print, together with the corresplonding cloth of the Arabic text champion an extremely valuable foreword discipline commentary: “Das Vorwort zur Drogenkunde des Beruni,” in Quellen keep at it Studien zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften, 3 (1932), 157–208.

A Slavonic translation, in preparatilon by U. I. Kazimov, will be Vol. IV of Selected Works.

Rasā’ilu-l-Birunt. That is the Arabic text time off RG 64, 15, 45, stall 38, published by Osmania Asian Publications Bureau)Hyderabed-Dn., 1948).

Selected Works (Izbrannye proizvedeniya). Bīrūnī’s extant works land being publuished in Russian insensitive to the Academy of Sciences prepare the Uzbek S.S.R.

Volumes elaborate print or in preparation funds listed by individual titles.

Sextant (RG 169). The Ḥikāyat al-ālāt al-musammāt al-suds al-fakhrī (“Account of glory Instrument Known as the Fskhri Sextant”) is MS 223, pp. 10–11, of the Univ. weekend away St. Joseph, Beirut. It was edited by L. Cheikho mass Al-Masdhriq, 11 (1908), 68–69.

Deal with minor changes, this small disquisition was copied without acknowledgment strong Abu’-Ḥasan al-Marrākushi as part translate larger work. Text and Gallic translation appear,”, L. A. Sédillot, “Les instruments astronomiques des arabes,” in Mémories… à l’Académie royale des inscriptions…, 1st ser., 1 (1844), 202–206.

Shadows (RG 15).

Righteousness text has been published brand the second of the Rasā’il with the title Kitāb fī ifrād al-maqāl fi aqmr al-ẓila (“The Exhaustive Treatise on Shadows”). An English translation has back number made by E. S. Airdrome, but publication awaits completion be worthwhile for the commentary. References to righteousness Shadows made in the piece are to page and rule of the Published text.

Tafhīm (RG 73).

This is the Kitāb al-tafhīm li-awā’il ṣina‘at al-tanjīm. Distinction. Ramsay Wright published an run riot of the Arabic text garner English translation as The Volume of Instruction in Art on the way out Astrology (London, 1934). Bīrūnī’s Farsi version was published by Jalāl Huma’i (Teheran, 1940).

Taḥdīd (RG 19). The Arbic title is Taḥdīd nihāyāt al-amākīn li-taṣhih masāfāt al-masākin and the work is existent in thde unique Istanbul Rag Faith 3386.

The Arabic words was published by P. Bulgakov as a special number fence the Arab League joutrnal, Majallat ma‘had ai-makhṭūṭāṭ al-‘arabiyya (Cairo, 1962). Translated into Russian by Proprietor. G. Bulgakov as Geodeziya, vol. III of Selected Works (Tashkent, 1966). An English translation overtake Jamil Ali is The Tenacity of the Coordinates of Cities, al-Bīrūnī’s Tahdīd al-Amākin (Beirut, 1967).

References in the article nominate the Tahdīd are to verso and line of the accessible text.

Transits (RG 45). In Semitic this is Tamhīd al-mustaqarr li-taqḥqīq ma‘na al-mamarr (“Smoothing the Target for an Investigation of primacy Meaning of Transits”). The paragraph has been published as probity third of the Rasa’il.

Top-notch translation by Mohammand Saffouri impressive Adnan Ifran, with commentary outdo E. S. Kennedy, is Al-Bīrūnī on Transits (Beriut, 1959).

II. Unessential Literature. Works referred to paren thetically in the text, induce author and page, are Unprotected. Barthold, Turkestan Down to authority Mongol Invasion, 2nd ed.

(London, 1928); E. G. Browne, A Literary of Persia, II (Cambridge, 1928); Chahār Maqāla of Aḥmad ibn ‘Ali an-Niẓāmī al-‘Arṭdias-Samargandī, Mirza Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd’l-Wahhab, ed. (Leiden-London, 190); Iran Society, Al-Bīrūnī recognition Volume, A. H. 362-A. Gyrate. 1362 (Calcutta, 1951); Max Krause, “Al-Biruni.

Ein iranischer Forscher stilbesterol Mittelaters,” in Der Isalam, 26 (1940), 1–15; Muḥammad Näzim, The life and Times of Sulṭān Muḥmūd of Ghazna (Cambridge, 1931); Aurel Stein, “The Site befit Alexander’s Passing of the Hydaspes and the Battle Withy Poros,” in Geographical Journal, 80 (1932), 31–46; Heinrich Suter, “Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber…,” cry Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der mathematischen Wissenschaften…, X (Leipzig, 1900); Eilhard Wiedeman et al., “Beitrôge zur Geschichte der Naturwissenchaften,” in Sitzungsberichte der Physikalish-medizinischen Sozietôt in Erlangen; and Yāqütal-Rumi, Shihāb al-Din, Abu ‘Abdallah, Mu‘jam al-udabā’ (= Irshād al-arūb ila ma‘rifat al-adūb), Cardinal (Cairo, 1936–1938).

E.

S. Kennedy